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In German orthography, grapheme ÃÆ'Ÿ , called Eszett ( IPA: [? S'ts? T] ) or scharfes S ( IPA: ['? A? F? S' s] , ['? A: f. s' s] ), in English "sharp S", representing phoneme [s] in German Standard , especially when following long vowels and diphthongs, while ss is used after a short vowel. The name Eszett represents the German pronunciation of two letters S and Z .

It originated as a digraph sz as used in the orthography of Ancient Germany and Central German High, represented as a long and tailed z fasteners in blackletter typography ( s? ), which became conflated with The ligands for long and round s s ( ss ) are used in Roman types.

The graph has an intermediate position between the letter and the ligature. Behave as a binder because it does not have a separate position in the alphabet. In alphabetical order it is treated equal to? (not? sz?). Behave like a letter in its use that is dictated by orthographic rules and pass on phonological information (use of ÃÆ'Ÿ indicates that the previous vowel is long). Traditionally, it has no form of capital, although some types of designers introduce the de facto variant of uppercase ÃÆ'Ÿ. In 2017, the German Orthographic Council finally adopted the ÃÆ'Ÿ (?) Capital into German orthography, ending the long orthographic debate.

While ÃÆ'Ÿ has been used as a binder for? Ss? digraf in early modern printing for languages ​​other than German, its use in modern typography is limited to German. In the 20th century, it was not fully used in the Swiss Standard German Language (used in Switzerland and Liechtenstein), while it remained a part of the German Standard orthography elsewhere.

ÃÆ'Ÿ is encoded by ECMA-94 (1985) at position 223 (hexadecimal DF), inherited by Latin-1 and Unicode ( U 00DF ÃÆ'Ÿ SHARP Slim LATIN SATUR> ). HTML entity & amp; szlig; was introduced with HTML 2.0 (1995). The capital variant (span> U 1E9E ? LATIN CAPITAL LETTER SHARP S ) was introduced by ISO 10646 in 2008.

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History

Origin

The spelling sz for the voiceless alveolar fricative ([s]), continues Proto-Germanic/t/, comes from the Old High German, contrary to voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative ([?] Germanic/s/, spelled ss .

This spell survives in Middle High German even after the merger of two phoneme [s] and [?]. In the hands of the Gothic book and bastarda script from the high medieval period,? Sz? written with long and tailed z, such as s? . The known ligament development that represents the digestion of the cell grew in handwriting in the early 14th century. This bond was also adopted as a separate type on the early types of blackletter in the 15th century.

The ss ligament is a separate source from the development of s? ligature. It was developed at the beginning of the 16th century the Latin humanist script representing the digraphs s (long) and s (spin s). Brekle (2001) quotes as an early appearance of the handwritten ligature of Lodovico Vicentino, dated 1515. The binders are adopted into the Antiqua letter type.

Thus, in early printing, there is no direct contrast between s? and ligatures ss in single-letter types: font blackletter designed to print German will have s? but there is no ss ligature (German? translating as ss ), while the Antiqua fonts intended for printing Latin or Italian will have ss but no s? ligature. When the German text began printing in Antiqua (see Antiqua-Fracture disputes), Antiqua ss (ie? Ss?) Ligatur used as a match of s? (ie? sz?) ligature in the font blackletter. Thus, the modern German (Antiqua) letter ÃÆ'Ÿ is in some fonts that comes from graphically ss though it represents the historical digraph sz and continues from Middle High German and Early Modern High German orthography.

At the end of the 18th and early 19th century, as more German texts were printed in Roman (Antiqua), the traitors sought the right Roman counterparts to lexature blackletter sz , which were not in Rome. fonts. The printer experimented with various techniques, most of which replaced the blackletter with sz , some combinations of this. Although there are initial instances in the Roman type of ss -better that looks like the letter ÃÆ'Ÿ , it is not commonly used for sz .

Sulzbacher forms

It was only with the First Orthographic Conference in Berlin in 1876 that the printing and foundry types began to search for the form of a general letter to represent Eszett in the Roman type. In 1879, proposals for various forms of letters were published in the Journal fÃÆ'¼r Buchdruckerkunst . A committee of the Leipzig Typography Society chose the "Sulzbacher form". In 1903 it was proclaimed as a new standard for Eszett in the Roman type.

Since then, the German printing set in the Roman language has been using the letters ÃÆ'Ÿ. The Sulzbacher's form, however, did not find acceptance unanimously. This becomes a standard form, but many types of designers are preferred (and still prefer) other forms. Some resemble blackletter sz -large, others are older than Roman ss .

The exact letters ÃÆ' Ÿ are used only in the preparation of German letters. The use of ligatures similar to ÃÆ'Ÿ represents not a letter but the digraph ss can be found in early modern printing in other languages ​​(Italian and Latin); in the English letter setting, spelling ss mostly occurs as two letters which are not counted.

orthographic History

Johann Christoph Adelung (1732-1806) and Johann Christian August Heyse (1764-1829) are two German lexicographers who tried to establish consistent rules about the application of the letter s.

In Austria, the Heyse government of 1829 entered into force from 1879 until the second orthographic conference in 1901, where it was decided to favor the Adelung administration rather than Heyse's. The 1996 German orthographic reforms reintroduced the Heyse variant, but without length.

Heyse uses ligatures between long and round s, which look different from the sz ligature. Since there is no modern character for it, this table uses ss instead of binders.

Heyse argument: Given that "ss" can appear at the end of a word, before fuga and "s" become common initial letters for words, "sss" is likely to appear in a large number of cases (this case count is even higher than all possible cases consonant three (eg "Dampfschifffahrt") together). Critics point out that triple "s" in words like "Missstand" lacks readability features rather than spell it "MiÃÆ'Ÿstand". Even in the case where the word of the two compounds does not begin with "s", "ÃÆ'Ÿ" should be used to improve fugue legibility (eg "MeÃÆ'Ÿergebnis" over "Messergebnis" (measurement), which denotes unrelated words "Messer" knives), and "MeÃÆ'Ÿingenieur" over "Messingenieur" (measuring engineer), which denotes unrelated "Messing" (brass).

The problem of the Adelung rule is solved by Heyse which distinguishes between the letter s ("s") and the round s ("s"). Only round s can solve one word, because it is also called terminal s ( SchluÃÆ'Ÿ-s resp. Schluss-s ). This round also shows the fugue compound. Instead of "Missstand" and "Messergebnis" one writes "Missstand" and "Messergebnis". Back then the special ligature for the Heyse rule was introduced: ss. Among the common ligatures "ff", "ft", "ss" and "st", "ss" and "s?" are two different characters in the Fraktur letters arrangement if applying the Heyse rules.

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Representation

Variant graph

The recommendations of the Sulzbacher Form (1903) were not universally followed in the printing of the 20th century. There are four different variants of ÃÆ'Ÿ used in Antiqua fonts:

1. ss without ligature, but as a single type, with a reduced distance between two letters
2. ligature s and s were inherited from typographical Antiqua of the 16th century
3. the binders of s and tailed z, adapting the blackmail ligature to Antiqua
4. form Sulzbacher.

The first variant (no ligature) has become practically obsolete. Most modern typography follows either 2 or 4, with 3 being maintained in occasional use, especially on road signs in Bonn and Berlin.

Penggunaan varian tipografi di rambu jalan:

Bentuk modal

Since ÃÆ'Ÿ is treated as a ligature, not the full letter of the German alphabet, it has no capital form in the early modern letter setting. However there is a proposal to introduce a modal form ÃÆ'Ÿ for use in writing allcaps (where ÃÆ'Ÿ is usually represented as SS or SZ ). It was first proposed in 1879, but did not enter into official or widespread use. The preface to the 1925 edition of the dictionary Duden expresses the desire of a separate flying machine for capital ÃÆ'Ÿ:

Using two letters for sound is just a substitute that must be terminated as soon as the capital letters match are made to capital letters.

The use of two letters for a single phoneme is an emergency, soon to be abandoned once a suitable type for capital ÃÆ'Ÿ has been developed.

The Duden edited separately in East and West Germany during the 1950s to the 1980s. The German Duden East from 1957 (15 ed.) Introducing the ÃÆ'Ã… modal capital in typesetting without revising the rules for capitalization. The 16th edition of 1969 still announces that the uppercase ÃÆ'Ÿ is being developed and will be introduced in the future. The 1984 edition once again removes this announcement and only states that there is no capital version of ÃÆ'Ÿ.

Regardless of prescriptive or orthographic concerns, the type for capital ÃÆ'Ÿ was designed in various typography in the 1920s and 1930s although they were rarely used. In the 2000s, Andreas StÃÆ'¶tzner, editor of typography magazine Signa campaigned for the recognition of the character. StÃÆ'¶tzner deposited a proposal related to the Unicode Consortium in 2004. The proposal was rejected at the time, but the second proposal submitted in 2007 was successful and the character was introduced in 2008 (Unicode version 5.1.0), as U 1E9E ? SHARP SAT LATIN LETTER S (Latin Extended Additional block). In 2016, the Council for German Orthography proposes the introduction of optional usage? in the rule (ie the STRASSE vs STRA? E variant will be accepted as equally valid). The rules were officially adopted by 2017.

Keyboard and encoding

In Germany and Austria, the letters ÃÆ'Ÿ are present on computer keyboards and typewriters, usually on the right on the top row. The keyboard layout of a German typewriter is defined in DIN 2112, first published in 1928.

In other countries, the letter is not marked on the keyboard, but other key combinations can produce it. Often, the letter is entered using the modifier and key s . Detail layout of the keyboard depends on the input language and operating system, such as Ctrl Alt s, on some keyboards like AS-International as well as AltGr s in Microsoft Windows or Options in US, US-Extended, and UK keyboard on macOS. In Windows, someone can also use the alt code 0223.

Some modern virtual keyboards show ÃÆ'Ÿ when the user presses and holds the s key.

The HTML entity for ÃÆ'Ÿ is & amp; szlig; . The coding codes are ISO 8859, 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16 and identical in Unicode is 223, or DF in hexadecimal. In TeX and LaTeX, \ ss generates ÃÆ'Ÿ. The German support package for LaTeX is where ÃÆ'Ÿ is produced by "s (similar to umlauts, produced by" a, "o, and" u with this package).

In modern browsers, "ÃÆ'Ÿ" will be converted to "SS" when the element containing it is set to uppercase using text-transform: uppercase in Cascading Style Sheets. JavaScript in Google Chrome converts "ÃÆ'Ÿ" to "SS" when converted to capitalization (eg "ÃÆ'Ÿ".toUpperCase () ).

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Usage

Usage in the reformed orthography of 1996

In German spelling reform ortography in 1996, both ÃÆ'Ÿ and ss are used to represent/s/between two vowels as follows:

1. ÃÆ'Ÿ used after diftong ( beiÃÆ'Ÿen ?] 'to bite')
2. ÃÆ'Ÿ is used after long vowels ( grÃÆ'¼ÃÆ'Ÿen ] 'to say hello')
3. ss is used after short vowel ( kÃÆ'¼ssen 'to kiss')

Thus it helps to distinguish words like BuÃÆ'Ÿe (long vowels) 'penance, fine' and 'Busse (short vowels)' bus'. This is also consistent with the general German spelling rule that the letters of multiple consonants serve to mark the previous vowel as short (the sound of consonants never really doubled or extended in pronunciation).

In words where the bar changes, some forms may have ÃÆ'Ÿ but others are ss , for example sie beiÃÆ'Ÿen ('they bite ') vs. sie bissen ('they bite').

The same rule applies at the end of a word or syllable, but is complicated by the fact that one s is also pronounced /s/ at position it. Thus, words like groÃÆ'Ÿ ('big') require ÃÆ'Ÿ , while others, like Gras ('grass') using one s . Correct spelling can not be predicted out of context (in German Standard pronunciation), but is usually made clear by related forms, for example, GrÃÆ'¶ÃÆ'Ÿe ('size') and grasen ('to graze'), where the medial consonant is pronounced [s] and [z] each. Many German dialects however have longer vowels, or less sharp sounds, in a single case are used.

Use in traditional orthography

In traditional orthography, ÃÆ'Ÿ is always used at the end of a word or a word-component, or before a consonant, even when the previous vowel is short. For example, FuÃÆ'Ÿ ('leg') has a long vowel, pronounced /fu: s/, etc. affected by spelling reforms; but KuÃÆ'Ÿ ('kiss') has a short vowel, pronounced /k? s/, and reformed to Kuss . Other traditional examples include EÃÆ'Ÿunlust ('loss of appetite'), and wÃÆ'¤ÃÆ'Ÿrig ('watery'), but Wasser ('water').

The spelling reform affects some German forms of foreign names, such as RuÃÆ'Ÿland ("Russia"), reformed Russland , and PreÃÆ'Ã… ¸burg ("Bratislava"), reformed Pressburg . Orthographic personal names (first and last names) and names for precise German locations, Austria and Switzerland were not affected by the 1996 reform; These names often use irregular spellings that are otherwise not allowed under German spelling rules, not only in terms of ÃÆ'Ÿ but also in many other respects.

Traditional Orthography encourages the use of SZ in place ÃÆ'Ÿ in words with all capital letters where the usual SS will produce ambiguous results. One possible ambiguity is between IN MASZEN (in limited quantities; MaÃÆ'Ÿ , "size") and IN MASSEN (in large quantities; > Masse , "mass"). Such cases are scarce enough that this rule is officially abandoned in the reformed orthography. The German military still occasionally uses capital letters SZ , even without the possibility of ambiguity, such as SCHIESZGERÃÆ' â € žT ("shooting materials"). Architectural drawings can also use SZ in capitalization because capital letters and both MaÃÆ'Ÿ and Masses are often used. The military teleprinter operations in Germany still use sz for ÃÆ'Ÿ (unlike German typewriters, German teleprinter machines never display an umlaut or letters ÃÆ'Ÿ ).

Substitutions and all caps

If no ÃÆ'Ÿ is available, ss or sz are used instead ( sz Hungary). This is especially true for all caps or texts of a small cap because ÃÅÅ has no general form of majuscule until 2017. Excluded are all-name caps in legal documents; they may retain ÃÆ'Ÿ to prevent ambiguity (eg: STRAÃÆ'Ã… øer , since StraÃÆ'Ÿer and Strasser two possible names).

This ss replacing ÃÆ'Ÿ should be hyphenated as a single letter in traditional orthography. For example STRA-SSE ('path'); compare Stra-ÃÆ'Ÿe . In the orthography of reform, it is hyphenated like any other double consonant: STRAS-SE .

Switzerland and Liechtenstein

In Swiss German Standard, ss usually replaces every ÃÆ'Ÿ . This is formally approved by the reformed German orthography rules, which states in Ã, §25Ã, E 2 : In der Schweiz kann man immer ,, ss "schreiben (" In Switzerland, someone may always write 'ss' "). Liechtenstein follows the same practice.

In Switzerland, ÃÆ'Ÿ has been phased out since the 1930s, when most of the region decided not to teach it anymore and the Swiss postal service stopped using it in place names. The Neue ZÃÆ'¼rcher Zeitung was the last Swiss newspaper to surrender ÃÆ'Ÿ , in 1974. Currently, Swiss publishers use ÃÆ'Ÿ only for books covering the entire German-speaking market.

Rarely used

Occasionally, ÃÆ'Ÿ has been used in an unusual way:

• In lieu of the Greek "?" beta, which looks a bit like. It is used in older operating systems, whose character encodings (mainly Latin-1 and Windows-1252) do not support the use of Greek letters with ease. Also, the original IBM DOS code page, CP437 (aka OEM-US) configures two characters, assigning them the same code point (0xE1) and glyphs that minimize their differences.
• 'ÃÆ'Ÿ' is used to represent/?/in the German-influenced spelling system for the Lithuanian language used in Lithuania Minor in Eastern Prussia, which can be seen in eg. some surnames.
• 'ÃÆ'Ÿ' is also sometimes used to translate the Sumerians/?/(standard transliteration ???).
• The author Gabriela Mendling used the beginning ÃÆ'Ã… dalam in her two novels (1999, 2000) to show noiseless from the local dialect in Frankfurt (Oder), where voiced is expected in standard German. Example: "ÃÆ'Ÿind ÃÆ'Ÿie?" instead of "Sind Sie?".

src: english.taichung.gov.tw

See also

• Capital ÃÆ'Ÿ
• Greek letter? (Beta)
• ?
• The length of s (s)
• Sz (digraph)
• ?
• de: Heysesche s-Schreibung (in German)
• de: Adelungsche s-Schreibung (in German)

src: english.taichung.gov.tw

References

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External links

• James Mosley: Eszett or ÃÆ'Ÿ - January 31, 2008 at typefoundry.blogspot.com
• Mark Jamra: The Eszett

Source of the article : Wikipedia