The Spanish conquest of Maya was a prolonged conflict during the Spanish occupation of America, where the Spanish conquistadores and their allies gradually entered the territory of the Mayan Postclassic state and the colonial rule of Viceroyalty of New Spain. The Maya occupied the territory that is now included in modern Mexican countries, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador; Conquest began in the early 16th century and is generally considered to have ended in 1697.
The conquest of the Mayans was hampered by their fragmented political conditions. Spanish and indigenous tactics and technology are very different. The Spaniards were involved in a strategy of concentrating indigenous peoples in the newly established colonial cities; they viewed the taking of prisoners as a barrier to absolute victory, while Maya prioritized the arrest of life prisoners and booty. Among the Maya, the ambush was the preferred tactic; In response to the use of Spanish cavalry, the Mayan plateau took to dig a hole and coated them with wooden bets. The original resistance to the new nucleation settlement was to escape into inaccessible areas such as the jungle or join a neighboring Maya group that had not yet been handed over to European conquerors. Spanish weapons include wide swords, rapier, spears, spears, halberds, crossbows, matchlocks and light artillery. The Mayan warriors fought with spear-tipped spears, bows and arrows, stones, and wooden swords with obsidian knives, and wore cotton-covered armor to protect themselves. The Maya have no key elements of Old World technology such as functional wheels, horses, iron, steel, and gunpowder; they are also very vulnerable to Old World disease, and they have no resistance.
Before the conquest, the Maya region contained a number of competing kingdoms. Many conquerors regard Maya as "infidels" who need to be forcibly converted and reassured, ignoring the achievements of their civilization. The first contact between the Mayan and European explorers came in the early 16th century when a Spanish ship sailed from Panama to Santo Domingo was destroyed on the east coast of the YucatÃÆ'¡n Peninsula in 1511. Some Spanish expeditions followed in 1517 and 1519, making landfall in various part of YucatÃÆ'¡n beach. The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a prolonged affair; the Mayan empires rejected integration into the Spanish Empire with resilience in such a way that their defeat took almost two centuries. The Itza Maya and other lowland groups in PetÃÆ'Â Â © n Basin were first contacted by HernÃÆ'¡n CortÃÆ'Â © s in 1525, but remained independent and hostile to Spain that penetrated up to 1697, when a joint Spanish attack led by MartÃÆ'n de UrzÃÆ'ºa Arizmendi finally defeated the last independent Mayan empire.
Video Spanish conquest of the Maya
Geography
Maya civilization occupies a vast area covering southeastern Mexico and northern Central America; this area includes the entire Yucatán Peninsula, and all its territory is now incorporated into modern Guatemala and Belize, as well as western parts of Honduras and El Salvador. In Mexico, the Maya occupation area is now incorporated into the states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Quintana Roo and Yucatánn.
The YucatÃÆ'¡n peninsula is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the east and the Gulf of Mexico to the north and west. It combines the modern Mexican states of YucatÃÆ'¡n, Quintana Roo and Campeche, the eastern part of the state of Tabasco, most of Guatemala's department of PetÃÆ'Â © n, and all of Belize. Most of the peninsula is formed by a wide plain with several hills or mountains and the coastline is generally low. The northwestern and northern parts of the YucatÃÆ'¡n Peninsula experience lower rainfall than the rest of the peninsula; these areas have limestone limestone that is so porous that the water surface is less. By contrast, the northeastern part of the peninsula is characterized by a swamp forest. The northern part of the peninsula has no river, except the ChampotÃÆ'³n River - all other rivers lie to the south.
The Pete region is composed of a heavily wooded lowland limestone plain, which is crossed by an east-west oriented mountain and is characterized by various types of forests and soils; Water sources include rivers in general small and low seasonal swamps known as bajos . A chain of fourteen lakes walked across the central drainage basin of PetÃÆ'Â © n. The largest lake is Lake PetÃÆ' Â © n Itza; size 32 times 5 kilometers (19.9 times 3.1 mi). A vast meadow stretches south of the central lake. To the north of the lake area, bajos becomes more frequent, interspersed with forests. In the southern plains it slowly climbs into the highlands of Guatemala. The dense forest covers northern PetÃÆ'Â © n and Belize, mostly Quintana Roo, southern Campeche and parts of southern Yucatonia state. Further north, the vegetation turns into a lower forest consisting of a dense body scrub.
Chiapas occupies the most southeastern part of Mexico; it has 260 kilometers (160 million) Pacific coastline. Chiapas has two main plateau regions; in the south is the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and in central Chiapas is MontaÃÆ'Â ± as Centrales (Central Highlands). They are separated by the Depression Center, which contains the basin of the Grijalva River drainage, displaying a hot climate with moderate rainfall. The Sierra Madre Highlands gained altitude from west to east, with the highest mountain near the Guatemalan border. The Central Highlands of Chiapas rose sharply to the north of Grijalva, to a maximum height of 2,400 meters (7,900 ft), then down gradually towards the YucatÃÆ'¡n Peninsula. They are cut by deep valleys that run parallel to the Pacific coast, and feature a complex drainage system that feeds both Grijalva and LacantÃÆ'ºn Rivers. At the eastern end of the Central Highlands is the Lacandon Forest, the region is mostly mountainous with lowland plains at the easternmost end. The Soconusco litoral zone lies to the south of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, and consists of a narrow coastal plain and the foothills of the Sierra Madre.
Maps Spanish conquest of the Maya
Maya region before the conquest
The Maya were never united as a kingdom, but by the time the Spaniards arrived, the Mayan civilization was thousands of years old and had seen the rise and fall of the big cities.
YucatÃÆ'¡n
Major Mayan cities were first developed in the PetÃÆ'Â n Basin at the southern end of the Yucat Peninsula as far back as Middle Preclassic (c 600-350Ã, BC), and PetÃÆ' Â © n formed the heart of the ancient Maya. civilization during the Classical period (c.Ã, Â ± 250-900). The sixteenth-century Maya provinces in northern Yucatán are likely to have evolved beyond the rule of the Classic Maya period. The major cities that dominated PetÃÆ'Â| n had collapsed in the early 10th century with the onset of the fall of the Classical Maya. The existence of a significant Maya remained in PetÃÆ'Â n to the Postclassic period after the abandonment of the major classical period cities; the population is mainly concentrated near permanent water sources.
At the beginning of the 16th century, the YucatÃÆ'¡n Peninsula is still dominated by Maya civilization. It is divided into several independent provinces that share a common but varied culture within their internal social political organization. When Spain discovered YucatÃÆ'¡n, the provinces of Mani and Sotuta were two of the most important regions in the region. They are hostile to each other; Xiu Maya of Mani allied with Spain, while Cocom Maya of Sotuta became the arch-rivals of the European invaders.
At the time of conquest, the reigns of the northern Yucatán peninsula included Mani, Cehpech and Chakan; Further eastward along the north coast are Ah Kin Chel, Cupul, and Chikinchel. Ecab, Uaymil, Chetumal are all bordering the Caribbean Sea. Cochuah is also in the eastern part of the peninsula. Tases, Hocaba and Sotuta are all landlocked provinces. Chanputun (modern Champotón) is on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, such as Acalan. In the southern part of the peninsula, a number of governments occupy the PetÃÆ'Â © n Basin. The Kejache occupies the area between Lake PetÃÆ'Â © n and what is now Campeche. The Lakonian-speaking Lakon speaks of Chanan (not to be confused with modern Chiapas inhabitants by that name) mastering the region along the Usumacinta tributaries that lie east of Chiapas and southwest Peternania. Lakandon has a violent reputation among the Spaniards.
Before their defeat in 1697 Itza was controlled or influenced by many Petà © n and parts of Belize. Itza loves to fight, and their capital is Nojpetà ©, an island city on Lake Petáà © n Itzá¡. The Kowoj is the second in its importance; they are hostile to their Itza neighbors. The Kowoj is located around the eastern lake PetÃÆ' © n. Yalain occupies an area that extends eastward to Tipu in Belize. Other groups in Petrona are less well-known, and their exact territorial reach and political structure are still unclear; Among them are Chinamita, Icaiche, Cruel, Lakandon Ch'ol, Manche Ch'ol, and Mopan.
Mayan Plateau
What is now the Mexican state of Chiapas is roughly the same between the non-Maya Zoque in the west and the Maya in the east; this distribution continued until the time of the Spanish conquest. On the eve of the conquest, the Guatemalan highlands were dominated by several powerful Maya nations. In the centuries before the arrival of Spain, K'iche 'had carved out a small empire covering most of the Western Highlands of Guatemala and the surrounding Pacific coastal plains. However, by the end of the 15th century Kaqchikel rebelled against their former K'iche allies and established a new empire in the southeast with Iximche as its capital. In the decades before the Spanish invasion, the Kaqchikel empire continued to erode K'iche 'kingdom. Other highland groups include Tz'utujil around Lake AtitlÃÆ'¡n, Mam in the western highlands and Poqomam in the eastern highlands. The central plateau of Chiapas is occupied by a number of Maya tribes, including Tzotzil, which is divided into several provinces; The province of Chamula is said to have five small towns that are grouped together. The Tojolabal region is held around ComitÃÆ'¡n. The Coxoh Maya held the upstream area of ​​the Grijalva drainage, near the Guatemalan border, and possibly a subgroup of Tojolabal.
Pacific Lowlands
Soconusco is an important communication route between the central highlands of Central Mexico and Central America. It was conquered by the Three Aztec Alliance at the end of the 15th century, under the emperor Ahuizotl, and paid tribute at cocoa. The K'iche plateau dominates the Pacific coastal plains west of Guatemala. The eastern plains of the Pacific are occupied by non-Maya Pipil and Xinca.
Background of conquest
Christopher Columbus discovered the New World for the Castile and Leon empires in 1492. Private adventurers subsequently signed a contract with the Spanish Crown to conquer newly discovered land in return for tax revenues and power to power. In the first decade after the discovery of new land, Spain colonized the Caribbean and established an operating center on the island of Cuba. In August 1521, the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, fell into the hands of Spain. In the three years after the fall of Tenochtitlan, Spain conquered most of Mexico, extending southward like the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The newly conquered area became the New Spain, led by the young king who answered the king of Spain through the Council of the Indies.
Armament, strategy and tactics
The conquistadors are all volunteers, most of whom do not receive a fixed salary but instead a portion of the spoils of victory, in the form of precious metals, land grants and the provision of indigenous labor. Many Spaniards are already experienced with soldiers who previously campaigned in Europe. In addition to the Spaniards, the invading forces may include dozens of slaves and African armed free men. The politically fragmented situation on the YucatÃÆ'¡n Peninsula at the time of the conquest hampered the Spanish invasion, as no central political authority would be overthrown. However, Spain exploited this fragmentation by taking advantage of the existing competition between governments. Among Mesoamerican societies, arrest of prisoners is a priority, while for such Spanish prisoners it is a barrier to absolute victory. The Spaniards were involved in a strategy of concentrating indigenous populations in newly established colonial cities, or reducciones (also known as congregaciones). The original resistance to the new nucleation settlements took the form of indigenous fugitives to inaccessible areas such as forests or to join neighboring Maya groups that had not yet been submitted to Spain. Those who are left behind in reducciones are often the victims of infectious diseases; coastal reducciones, while convenient to the Spanish administration, are also vulnerable to pirate attacks.
Spanish weapons and tactics
Spanish weapons and tactics are very different from the natives. These include the use of Spanish arcs, firearms (including muskets, arqualius and cannons), war dogs and war horses. Horses have never been encountered by Maya before, and their use gives the conquistador an attached advantage over its unattainable opponent, allowing the rider to strike with greater force while simultaneously making him less vulnerable to attack. The built-in Conquistador is very easy to maneuver and it allows fighting groups to quickly replace themselves on the battlefield. The horse itself is not passive, and can hit an enemy fighters.
Crossbows and early firearms are heavy and deteriorate rapidly in the field, often becoming unusable after several weeks of campaigns due to the effects of climate. The Maya have no key elements of Old World technology, such as the use of iron and steel and functional wheels. The use of steel swords may be the greatest technological advantage possessed by the Spaniards, although cavalry deployment helps them to defeat the native army on certain occasions. The Spaniards were quite impressed with the cotton-coated armor of their Mayan enemies so they adopted it preferring their own armor armor. The conquistadors apply more effective military organizations and strategic awareness than their opponents, enabling them to deploy troops and supplies in a way that enhances the Spanish advantage.
The 16th century Spanish Conquistador is armed with large swords, spears, spears, rapier, halberds, crossbow, matchlock and light artillery. Crossbows are easier to maintain than matchlocks, especially in the humid tropical climate of the Caribbean region that includes many of the YucatÃÆ'¡n Peninsula.
In Guatemala, Spain routinely degrades native allies; at first this was the Nahua brought from the recently conquered Mexico, then they also included Maya. It is estimated that for every Spanish on the battlefield, there are at least 10 local aides. Sometimes there are as many as 30 native warriors to every Spaniard, and the participation of these Mesoamerican allies is decisive.
Original weapons and tactics
The Mayan forces were very disciplined, and the soldiers participated in regular exercises and exercises; every able-bodied adult male is available for military service. The Maya state does not defend standing troops; soldiers are deployed by local officials who report back to the designated war leader. There is also a full-time mercenary unit that follows a permanent leader. However, most fighters do not work full time and most are farmers; the needs of their plants usually come before the war. Maya warfare is not so much aimed at destroying enemies such as the seizure of prisoners and looting. The Mayan fighters are fighting against the Spaniards with pointed spears, bows, arrows, and stones. They wore cotton-covered armor to protect themselves. Spain describes the Mayan War's weapons of war as bows and arrows, spear-pointed poles, stone-headed spears, and two-handed swords made of solid wood with knives made from obsidian inserts, similar to the Aztec macuahuitl . The Mayan soldiers wore protective bodies in the form of a layered cotton that had been soaked in brine to strengthen it; armor produced compared to the armor armor used by Spain. Soldiers carry protective wooden shields or animals adorned with feathers and animal skins. The Mayans historically used ambush and invasion as a tactic they liked, and his work against Spain proved troublesome for Europeans. In response to the use of the cavalry, the Mayan plateau took to dig a hole in the streets, lining them with a hard-fire peg and disguising them with grass and weeds, a tack that Kaqchikel killed many horses.
The impact of Old World disease
Epidemics accidentally introduced by Spain include smallpox, measles and influenza. These diseases, along with typhoid and yellow fever, have a major impact on the Maya population. Old World Illness was brought with Spain and against the natives of the New World having no resistance is a decisive factor in conquest; they destroyed the population before the battle even happened. It is estimated that 90% of the indigenous population has been eliminated by disease within the first century of European contact.
A soldier who arrived in Mexico in 1520 brought smallpox and started a devastating plague that swept the Native Americans. Modern estimates of indigenous decline vary from 75% to 90% of deaths. Maya's written history shows that smallpox rapidly spread throughout the Maya region the same year when it arrived in central Mexico. Among the most deadly diseases are smallpox, influenza, measles and a number of lung diseases, including tuberculosis. Modern knowledge of the impact of this disease on populations without previous exposure suggests that 33-50% of the Mayan plateau population is killed.
These diseases swept through YucatÃÆ'¡n in the 1520s and 1530s, with periodic recurrences throughout the 16th century. By the end of the 16th century, malaria had arrived in the region, and yellow fever was first reported in the mid-17th century. The mortality rate is high, with about 50% of the population of some Yucatec Maya settlements being destroyed. The areas of the peninsula that dampened conditions became rapidly reduced after conquest with the infiltration of malaria and other waterborne parasites. The northeastern inhabitants of the peninsula are virtually eliminated entirely within fifty years of conquest. Soconusco also suffered the destruction of the catastrophic population, with a decrease of about 90-95%.
In the south, conditions conducive to the spread of malaria exist throughout PetÃÆ' © n and Belize. In Tabasco, a population of about 30,000 is reduced by about 90%, with measles, smallpox, catarrh, dysentery, and fever being the main cause. At the time of the fall of Nojpetà © in 1697, an estimated 60,000 Maya lived around Lake PetÃÆ'  n ItzÃÆ'¡, including a large number of refugees from other regions. It is estimated that 88% of them died during the first ten years of colonial rule because of a combination of disease and war.
First meeting: 1502 and 1511
On July 30, 1502, during his fourth voyage, Christopher Columbus arrived in Guanaja, one of the Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras. He sent his brother, Bartholomew, to spy on the island. When Bartholomew explored it, a large trading boat approached. Bartholomew Columbus climbed into the canoe, and discovered it was the Mayan merchant ship from YucatÃÆ'¡n, carrying the well dressed Maya and rich cargo. The Europeans plundered anything that caught their attention from between the cargo and captured the old captain to serve as a translator; the canoe is then allowed to continue its journey. This is the first recorded contact between Europeans and Mayans. It is likely that news of a pirate stranger in the Caribbean passes through the Maya trade route - the first prophecies of a bearded conqueror sent by Kukulkan, the northern feathered Mayan snake god, may be recorded around this time, and in time will be passed on to the books Chilam Balam.
In 1511, the Spanish caravel Santa MarÃÆ'a de la Barca sailed along the coast of Central America under the command of Pedro de Valdivia. The ship ran aground on a rock somewhere outside of Jamaica. There were only twenty survivors, including Captain Valdivia, Geronimo de Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero. They set themselves afloat on one of the ship's ships and after thirteen days, in which half of the survivors died, they landed on the YucatÃÆ'¡n beach. There they were captured by Halach Uinik, a Mayan king. Captain Vildivia was sacrificed with four friends, and their meat was served at a party. Aguilar and Guerrero were jailed and fattened for killing, along with five or six of their associates. Aguilar and Guerrero managed to escape from their captors and flee to the neighboring rulers, who took them as prisoners and made them slaves. After a while, Gonzalo Guerrero was authorized as a slave of Mr. Nachan Can of Chetumal. Guerrero became fully Mayanised and in 1514 Guerrero had reached the rank of nacom , a warlord who served the enemy of Nachan Can. Exploration of YucatÃÆ'¡n beach, 1517-1519 Exploration of YucatÃÆ'¡n beach, 1517-1519 Francisco HernÃÆ'¡ndez de CÃÆ'³rdoba, 1517
In 1517, Francisco HernÃÆ'¡ndez de CÃÆ'³rdoba sailed from Cuba with a small fleet. The expedition sailed west from Cuba for three weeks before seeing the northeast tip of the Yucatua Peninsula. The ships could not get near the beach because of shallow beaches. However, they can see a Mayan town about two leagues in the interior. The next morning, ten large canoes were rowed to fill the Spanish ships, and more than thirty Mayaans boarded the ship and mixed freely with the Spaniards. The next day the conquistadors landed on the beach. As the Spanish party advanced along the road to the city, they were ambushed by the Mayan warriors. Thirteen Spaniards were wounded by arrows in the first attack, but the conquistadors regrouped and repulsed Maya's attack. They advanced to a small plaza on the outskirts of the city. When the Spaniards rummaged through the nearby temples, they found a number of low-grade gold items, which filled them with enthusiasm. The expedition captured two Mayas to be used as interpreters and retreated to the ship. The Spaniards found that Maya's head arrows were made of flint and tended to destroy the impact, causing infected wounds and a slow death; two wounded Spaniards died from the arrow wounds inflicted on the ambush.
Over the next fifteen days the fleet follows the coastline to the west, and then south. The expedition is now very short of fresh water, and the coastal parties looking for water are left in danger of danger because ships can not pull near the shore because of the shallow end. On February 23, 1517, the Spaniards saw the Mayan town of Campeche. Large contingents land on the beach to fill their water vats. They were approached by about fifty well-dressed and unarmed Indians while water was being loaded into the boat; they questioned the Spaniards about their goals through the signs. The Spanish side then accepted the invitation to enter the city. Once inside the city, the Mayan leaders explained that the Spaniards would be killed if they did not retreat. The Spanish party retreats in defensive formation for ship safety.
After ten more days, the ships saw an entrance near ChampotÃÆ'³n, and a landing party found fresh water. Armed Mayan soldiers approached from the city, and communication was tried with signs. The night falls when the barrel is filled and the communication ends. At sunrise, Spain is surrounded by a sizeable army. Major Mayan warriors launched an attack and all the Spaniards received injuries in a panic ensuing panic, including HernÃÆ'¡ndez de CÃÆ'³rdoba. Spanish troops rejoined and forced to shore, where their discipline collapsed and fought frantically for the ships to take place, making the Spaniards vulnerable to the chasing Maya warriors who sailed the ocean behind them. At the end of the battle, Spain has lost more than fifty people, more than half of them, and five more died from their wounds in the following days. The fight lasted only an hour. They are now far from help and low inventory; too many people are lost and injured to sail all three ships back to Cuba, so one is abandoned. The pilot of the ship then directed the course to Cuba through Florida, and HernÃÆ'¡ndez de CordÃÆ'³bah wrote a report to Governor Diego Velázquez describing the voyage and, most importantly, the discovery of gold. HernÃÆ'¡ndez died soon after from his wounds. Juan de Grijalva, 1518
HernÃÆ'¡n CortÃÆ' Â © s, 1519
The return of Grijalva aroused great interest in Cuba, and YucatÃÆ'¡n is believed to be a land of wealth waiting to be plundered. A new expedition was held, with a fleet of eleven ships carrying 500 men and several horses. HernÃÆ'¡n Cortà © was placed in command, and his crew included officers who would be a famous conquistador, including Pedro de Alvarado, CristÃÆ'³bal de Olid, Gonzalo de Sandoval and Diego de Ordaz. Also ships are Francisco de Montejo and Bernal DÃÆ'az del Castillo, veterans of the Grijalva expedition.
The fleet made its first landing at Cozumel; Maya temples were thrown and Christian crosses were mounted on one of them. In Cozumel CortÃÆ' © s heard rumors about a bearded man on the mainland of Yucatán, which he thought was a European. Cortà © sent messengers to them and was able to save the stranded Geronimo de Aguilar, who had been enslaved by a Maya king. Aguilar has learned the Yucatec Maya language and became a Cortà © interpreter.
From Cozumel, the fleet revolves around the north of the Yucatánn Peninsula and follows the beach to the Grijalva River, named Cortón to honor the Spanish captain who has found it. In Tabasco, CortÃÆ' © s anchors his ships at Potonchán, a city of Maya Chontal. Maya is preparing to fight but the Spanish horses and guns quickly decide the result. The defeated Chontal Maya nobles offer gold, food, clothing and a group of young women in honor of the winners. Among these women was a young nobleman named Malintzin, who was named Spanish Marina. He speaks to Maya and Nahuatl and becomes the means by which Cortà © can communicate with Aztec. From Tabasco, CortÃÆ' © s continue along the coast, and continue to conquer the Aztecs.
Preparation to conquer the Highlands, 1522-1523
After the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan fell to Spain in 1521, Kaqchikel Maya of Iximche sent a messenger to HernÃÆ'¡n CortÃÆ' © s to declare their allegiance to the new Mexican ruler, and K'iche 'Maya Q'umarkaj may have also sent a delegation. In 1522 Cortà © sent Mexican allies to spy Sociausco region of the Chiapas lowlands, where they met new delegates from Iximche and Q'umarkaj at TuxpÃÆ'¡n; the two powerful Mayan highlands empire declared their allegiance to the King of Spain. But Corton's allies at Soconusco immediately informed him that K'iche 'and Kaqchikel were unfaithful, and harassed Spanish allies in the region. CortÃÆ' © s sends Pedro de Alvarado with 180 cavalry, 300 infantry, 4 cannons, and thousands of allied warriors from central Mexico; they arrived at Soconusco in 1523.
Soconusco, 1523-1524
Pedro de Alvarado passed Soconusco with considerable force in 1523, en route to conquer Guatemala. The Alvarado forces included veteran conquerors of the Aztecs, including cavalry and artillery; he was accompanied by many native allies. Alvarado was received peacefully in Soconusco, and his inhabitants vowed loyal to the Kingdom of Spain. They reported that a neighboring group in Guatemala attacked them for their friendly views of Spain. In 1524, Soconusco had been entirely reassured by Alvarado and his troops. Due to the economic importance of cocoa for the new colony, the Spaniards are reluctant to move indigenous people away from their established cocoa gardens. As a result, Soconusco residents are less likely to be collected into new settlements (reducciÃÆ'³n) than elsewhere in Chiapas, as planting new cacao plants will take five years to mature.
HernÃÆ'¡n Cortà ©  © s in the Maya lowlands, 1524-25
In 1524, after the conquest of the Aztec Empire by Spain, Hernón Cortà © led an expedition to Honduras over land, across Acalan in southern Campeche and Itza's kingdom in what is now the Department of Petia in northern Guatemala. The aim was to subdue the rebellious CristÃÆ'³bal de Olid, whom he had sent to conquer Honduras, and who had self-regulated in the region. CortÃ' left Tenochtitlan on 12 October 1524 with 140 Spanish troops, 93 of whom were up, 3,000 Mexican fighters, 150 horses, artillery, ammunition, and other equipment. CortÃÆ'  © s marched into the Maya region in Tabasco; soldiers crossed the Usumacinta River near Tenosique and crossed into Acalan province, Maya Province, where he recruited 600 Maya Chontal volunteers. Cortà © and his troops left Acalan on March 5, 1525.
The expedition passed over and over through the Crimean territories, and arrived on the north shore of Lake PetÃÆ' © n ItzÃÆ'¡¡ on March 13, 1525. The Roman Catholic priests who accompanied the expedition celebrated mass in front of Itza king, who was said to be very impressed that he promised to worship cross and crush his idols. Cortà © received an invitation from Kan Ek 'to visit Nojpetà ©. On his departure, Cortà © left the cross and the paralyzed horse that Itza was treated as a god, but the animal was soon to die.
From the lake, Cortà © went on a difficult journey south along the western slopes of the Maya Mountains, where he lost most of his horses. The expedition was lost in the hills north of Lake Izabal and nearly died of hunger before they caught a Mayan child who took them to safety. Cortà © found a village on the shores of Lake Izabal, and crossed the Dulce River to the Nito settlement, somewhere in Amatique Bay, with about a dozen companions, and waited there for the rest of his army to regroup in the next week. By this time the remnants of the expedition had been reduced to a few hundred; Cortà © managed to contact the Spaniards he was looking for, only to discover that CristÃÆ'³bal de Olid's officers had already put down his rebellion. Cortà © then returned to Mexico by sea.
Fringes of the kingdom: Belize, the 16th century to- 17
No Spanish military expedition was launched against Maya from Belize, though the Dominican and Franciscan brothers penetrated the area in an attempt to evangelize the natives. The only Spanish settlement in the region was founded by Alonso d'Avila in 1531 and lasted less than two years. In 1574, fifty Manche Ch'ol households were moved from Campin and Yaxal, in southern Belize, to the shore of Lake Izabal, but they soon fled back into the forest. To overcome Spanish encroachment into their territory, local Maya maintains an uncomfortable friendship with British loggers operating in central Belize. In 1641, the Franciscans established two reducciones between Maya Muzul from central Belize, at Zoite and Cehake; both settlements were fired by the Dutch carousel within a year. Destruction of the Maya Land, 1524-1526
Subjugation of K'iche', 1524
Pedro de Alvarado and his troops advanced along the Pacific coast without resistance until they reached the Samal River in western Guatemala. This region forms part of the K'iche kingdom, and K'iche's army is trying unsuccessfully to prevent the Spanish crossing the river. After crossing, the conquistadors searched the neighborhood nearby. On February 8, 1524, Alvarado forces fought in Xetulul, (modern San Francisco ZapotitlÃÆ'¡n). Spain and its allies invaded the city and set up camp in the market. Alvarado then headed upstream to the Sierra Madre mountains towards the heart of K'iche ', across the gap into the Quetzaltenango valley. On February 12, 1524, Alvarado's allies in Mexico were ambushed in the pass and pushed back by K'iche fighters, but a Spanish cavalry troop propagated K'iche 'and soldiers crossed into the town of Xelaju (modern Quetzaltenango) to find it empty. Spanish accounts attribute that at least one and possibly two powerful rulers of Q'umarkaj died in a fierce battle on the initial approach to Quetzaltenango. Almost a week later, on February 18, 1524, 30,000 powerful K'iche soldiers faced the Spanish army in the Quetzaltenango valley and were defeated comprehensively; many K'iche nobles were among the dead. This battle spent K'iche 'militarily and they asked for peace, and invited Pedro de Alvarado to their capital, Q'umarkaj. Alvarado was very suspicious of K'iche's intentions but accepted the offer and marched to Q'umarkaj with his troops. In TzakahÃÆ'¡ Spain leads the Roman Catholic mass under a temporary roof; the site was chosen to build the first church in Guatemala. The first Easter Easter held in Guatemala was celebrated in a new church, where high-level natives were baptized.
In March 1524 Pedro de Alvarado camped outside Q'umarkaj. He invites K'iche 'gentlemen Oxib-Keh (the ajpop , or king) and Beleheb-Tzy (the ajpop k'amha , or the elected king) to visit him in his camp. Once they did, he arrested them as prisoners. In response to the heavy K'iche counterattack, Alvarado captured the K'iche rulers who were burned to death, and then began to burn the whole city. After the destruction of Q'umarkaj, Pedro de Alvarado sent a message to Iximche, the capital of Kaqchikel, proposing an alliance against the remaining K'iche resistance. Alvarado wrote that they sent 4,000 troops to help him, although Kaqchikel noted that they only send 400. With the capitulation of K'iche 'kingdom, various non-K'iche people under K'iche's rule were also handed over to Spain. This includes Mam residents in the area right now in the modern department of San Marcos.
Kaqchikel Alliance and conquest Tz'utujil, 1524
On 14 April 1524, the Spaniards were invited to the Iximche and were well received by the kings of Belehe Qat and Cahi Imox. The Kaqchikel kings provided indigenous soldiers to assist conquerors against the continuing K'iche resistance and to help with the defeat of the neighboring Tz'utujil empire. The Spaniards only stayed for a while before proceeding to Atitlan and the Pacific coast. The Spanish returned to the capital Kaqchikel on July 23, 1524 and on July 27 Pedro de Alvarado declared Iximche the first Guatemala capital, Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala ("St. James of the Guatemalan Knights").
After two Kaqchikel messengers sent by Pedro de Alvarado were killed by Tz'utujil, the conquistadors and their Kaqchikel allies marched against Tz'utujil. Pedro de Alvarado leads 60 cavalry, 150 Spanish infantry and an unspecified number of Kaqchikel warriors. Spain and their allies arrived by the lake after a day of marching, and Alvarado climbed ahead with 30 cavalry along the lake's edge until he engaged a hostile Tz'utujil army, broken by Spanish troops. Survivors were chased across the highway to an island on foot before residents could break the bridge. The remaining troops of Alvarado soon arrived and they managed to invade the island. The surviving Tz'utujil escaped to the lake and swam to safety. The Spaniards can not catch them because the 300 canoes sent by Kaqchikel have not arrived yet. This battle took place on 18 April.
The following day, Spain entered Tecpan Atitlan, the capital of Tz'utujil, but it turned out that the city was deserted. The Tz'utujil leaders responded to Alvarado's messenger by surrendering to Pedro de Alvarado and swearing allegiance to Spain, where Alvarado points them to calm and return to Iximche; three days later, the Tz'utujil rulers arrived there to promise their loyalty and pay tribute to the conquerors.
Chiapas Plateau, 1524
In 1524 Luis MarÃÆ'n led a small party on a reconnaissance expedition to Chiapas. He departed from Coatzacoalcos (renamed EspÃÆ'ritu Santo by Spain), on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. His party follows Grijalva upstream; near the modern Chiapa de Corzo, the Spanish party fought and defeated the Chiapanecos. After this battle, MarÃÆ'n headed to the central plateau of Chiapas; around Easter he passed the town of Tzotzil Maya, Zinacantan without resistance from the population. Zinacantecos, faithful to their pledge two years earlier, helped Spain against other indigenous peoples in the region.
MarÃÆ'n initially met with a peaceful embassy as he approached the town of Chamula in Tzoztzil. He regarded this as the surrender of the inhabitants, but was met by armed resistance when he tried to enter the province. Spain discovered that Chamula Tzotzil had left their land and stripped them of food in an attempt to prevent the invaders. A day after their initial approach, MarÃÆ'n discovers that Chamula Tzotzil has collected their soldiers on a ridge that is too steep for a Spanish horse to climb. The conquistadors meet with a barrage of missiles and boiling water, and finds the nearest town maintained by a powerful 1.2-meter (4Ã, ft) thick wall of defense. Spain stormed the wall, to find that the inhabitants had resigned under heavy rain that disrupted the fighting. After taking the lonely Chamula, the Spanish expedition continues against their allies in Huixtan. Once again the residents offered armed resistance before leaving their city to Spain. Conquistador Diego Godoy writes that the Indians killed or captured in Huixtan number no more than 500. The Spaniards, who are now disappointed by the rare results, decided to retreat to Coatzacoalcos in May 1524. Kaqchikel Rebellion, 1524-1530
Pedro de Alvarado quickly began to demand gold as a tribute to Kaqchikel, the deterioration of friendship between the two nations, and the people of Kaqchikel left their city and fled to the forests and hills on August 28, 1524. Ten days later Spain declared war on Kaqchikel.
The Spaniards established a new town in adjacent Guatemalan TecpÃÆ'¡n, leaving it in 1527 due to the ongoing Kaqchikel attack, and moving to the Almolonga Valley in the east, re-establishing their capital in Ciudad Vieja. Kaqchikel continued against Spain for several years, but on May 9, 1530, exhausted by war, the two kings of the most important clan returned from the wilderness. A day later they joined many nobles and their families and more people; they later surrendered in the new capital of Spain in Ciudad Vieja. The former Iximche residents spread; some moved to TecpÃÆ'¡n, the rest to SololÃÆ'¡ and other towns around Lake AtitlÃÆ'¡n.
Siege of Zaculeu, 1525
At the time of conquest, the main Mam population was located in Xinabahul (modern Huehuetenango city), but the Zaculeu fortress made its use as a refuge during the conquest. The protection was attacked by Gonzalo de Alvarado y Contreras, brother of Pedro de Alvarado, in 1525, with 40 Spanish cavalries and 80 Spanish infantry, and about 2,000 Mexican and K'iche 'allies. Gonzalo de Alvarado left the Spanish camp in Tecpán Guatemala in July 1525 and lined up to Momostenango, who quickly fell to Spain after a four-hour battle. The next day Gonzalo de Alvarado lined up in Huehuetenango and was faced by 5,000 5,000 soldiers Mam from Malacatán. The Mam army advanced across the plains in battle formation and met the Spanish cavalry troops threw them into chaos, with the infantry besieged Mam who survived the cavalry. The leader of Mam Canil Acab was killed and the surviving soldiers fled to the hill. The Spanish army rested for a few days, then proceeded to Huehuetenango just to find it quiet.
Kayb'il B'alam has received news of Spanish progress and has been drawn to his fortress in Zaculeu, with about 6,000 soldiers gathered from the surrounding area. The fort had a formidable defense, and Gonzalo de Alvarado launched an attack on the weaker northern entrance. Mam fighters initially clung to the Spanish infantry but fell back before recurring cavalry charges. Kayb'il B'alam, seeing that an absolute victory on an open battlefield is impossible, pulling his troops back into the safe wall. When Alvarado dug and besieged the fortress, an army of about 8,000 Mam warriors descended to Zaculeu from the Cuchumatanes mountains to the north, drawn from cities allied to the city; help troops annihilated by Spanish cavalry. After a few months, Mam was reduced to starvation. Kayb'il B'alam finally surrendered the city to the Spaniards in mid-October 1525. When the Spaniards entered the city, they found 1,800 dead Indians, and survivors ate the corpses. After the fall of Zaculeu, a Spanish garrison was founded in Huehuetenango, and Gonzalo de Alvarado returned to TecpÃÆ'¡n Guatemala.
Pedro de Alvarado in Chiapas Plateau, 1525
Central and Eastern Highlands, 1525-1532In 1525 Pedro de Alvarado sent a small company to conquer Mixco Viejo (Chinautla Viejo), the capital of Poqomam. Spain tried to approach through a narrow gap but was forced to retreat with huge losses. Alvarado himself launched a second attack with 200 Tlaxcalan allies but was also beaten back. The Poqomam then received reinforcements, and two soldiers clashed in open ground outside the city. The battle was chaotic and lasted most of the day, but was eventually decided by the Spanish cavalry. Rescue leaders surrendered to Spain three days after their retreat and revealed that the city had a secret entrance in the form of a cave. Alvarado sent 40 men to close the exit of the cave and launched another attack along the ravine, in one file due to his narrowness, with crossbowmen alternating with muskets, each with a companion protecting him with a shield. This tactic allowed Spain to break in and storm the city entrance. The Poqomam warriors fell back into turmoil at a chaotic retreat in the city. Those who managed to retreat to the neighboring valley were invaded by a Spanish cavalry that had been placed to block the exit from the cave, the survivors were captured and taken back to the city. The siege lasted more than a month, and due to the city's defense force, Alvarado ordered it to be burned and moved the population to the new colonial village of Mixco.
No direct source explains Chajoma's conquest by Spain but appears to have been a protracted campaign rather than a quick win. After the conquest, the royal population was resettled in San Pedro SacatepÃÆ'  © quez, and San MartÃÆ'n Jilotepeque. Chajoma rebelled against Spain in 1526, fought in Ukub'il, an unknown place somewhere near the modern cities of San Juan Sacatepà © quez and San Pedro Sacatepà © quez.
Chiquimula de la Sierra ("Chiquimula in the Highlands") was inhabited by Ch'orti 'Maya during the conquest. The first Spanish reconnaissance in the region occurred in 1524. In 1526 three Spanish captains invaded Chiquimula on the orders of Pedro de Alvarado. The indigenous population soon rebelled against excessive Spanish demands, but the rebellion was quickly extinguished in April 1530. However, the area was not considered fully conquered until the campaign by Jorge de Bocanegra in 1531-1532 which also took parts of Jalapa. Old World disease sufferers, war and overwork in the mines and encomiendas took many casualties to the population of eastern Guatemala, to the extent that the indigenous population never recovered to the pre-conquest level.
Conquest of the Chiapas Highlands, 1527-1547
Pedro de Portocarrero, a young nobleman, led the next expedition to Chiapas after Alvarado, again from Guatemala. His campaign was largely undocumented but in January 1528 he succeeded in establishing the San CristÃÆ'³bal de los Llanos settlement in the valley ComitÃÆ'¡n, in the Maya region of Tojolabal. It serves as a base of operations that allows Spain to expand their control over the Ocosingo valley. One of the rare mention of the Portocarrero campaign shows that there is some indigenous resistance but the exact shape and extent is unknown. Portocarrero established Spanish rule over a number of Tzeltal and Tojolabal settlements, and went as far as the town of Tzotzil, Huixtan.
In 1528, Spanish colonial powers had been established in the Chiapas Plateau, and the right of encomienda was being issued to individual conquistadores. Spanish ownership extended from drainage over Grijalva, in ComitÃÆ'¡n and Teopisca to the Ocosingo valley. The northern and northwestern sections are incorporated into the Villa de Españritu Santo district, which includes the Ch'ol Maya region around Tila. In the early years of conquest, encomienda rights effectively meant the right to loot and collect slaves, usually in the form of a group of conquistadores installed launching a lightning slave attack over a population center that was not suspicious. Inmates will be labeled as slaves, and sold in exchange for weapons, supplies, and horses.
Diego Mazariegos, 1528
In 1528, captain Diego Mazariegos crossed into Chiapas via Isthmus of Tehuantepec with artillery and raw recruits recently arriving from Spain. By this time, the indigenous population has been greatly reduced by the combination of disease and hunger. They first went to Jiquipilas to meet with delegates from Zinacantan, who had sought Spanish help against rebel followers; a small contingent of Spanish cavalry is enough to bring this back to the line. After this, Mazariegos and his friends proceeded to Chiapan and set up a temporary tent nearby, which they named Villa Real. Mazariegos has arrived with a mandate to establish the new colonial province of Chiapa in the Chiapas Plateau. He initially met with resistance from veteran conquistadores who had established themselves in the region. Mazariegos heard that Pedro de Portocarrero was in the highlands, and sought him out to persuade him to leave. The two conquistadors finally met at Huixtan. Mazariegos held a protracted three-month negotiation with the Spanish settlers in Coatzacoalcos (Españr Santo) and San Cristón de los Llanos. Finally an agreement was reached, and the encomiendas from the highland Españora Santo were joined by the San Cristón to form a new province. Unknown Mazariegos, the king has issued an order that the settlements of San CristÃÆ'³bal de los Llanos are transferred to Pedro de Alvarado. The final result of the negotiations between Mazariegos and established settlers is that the Villa de San Cristónbal de los Llanos was destroyed, and the settlers who wanted to remain moved to Villa Real, who had been moved to the lush Jovel valley. Pedro de Portocarrero leaves Chiapas and returns to Guatemala. Mazariegos went on to move the Indians into reducciones; this process is made easier by the much reduced rate of indigenous population. Mazariegos issued an encomienda license covering unconverted areas to encourage colonists to conquer new territory. Chiapa Province has no coastal area, and by the end of this process about 100 Spanish settlers were concentrated in the remote provincial capital of Villa Real, surrounded by hostile Indian settlements, and with deep internal divisions.
Rebellion in the Chiapas Plateau, 1528
Although Mazariegos succeeded in establishing a new provincial capital without armed conflict, excessive Spanish demand for labor and supplies soon provoked the local population into insurrection. In August 1528, Mazariegos replaced existing encomendaros with friends and allies; indigenous people, seeing the Spanish isolated and witnessing hostility between the original and new arrivals arriving, took this opportunity to rebel and refused to supply their new master. ZinacantÃÆ'¡n is the only indigenous settlement that remains true to the Spaniards.
Villa Real is now surrounded by enemy territory, and Spanish help is too far away to be valuable. The colonists quickly ran out of food and responded by taking up arms and riding the Indians for food and slaves. The Indians leave their cities and hide their women and children in the caves. The rebel populations concentrate on the mountaintop that is easily defended. In Quetzaltepeque, a long battle ensued between Maya Tzeltal and Spain, which resulted in the deaths of a number of Spaniards. The fighting lasted several days, and Spain was supported by indigenous soldiers from central Mexico. The battle eventually resulted in the victory of Spain, but the remaining province of Chiapa remained rebellious.
After the Quetzaltepeque battle, Villa Real is still short of food and Mazariegos is ill; he retreated to Copanaguastla against protests from the city council, remaining to defend the newborn colony. Now, NuÃÆ' Â ± o de GuzmÃÆ'¡n is governor of Mexico, and he sends Juan EnrÃÆ'quez de GuzmÃÆ'¡n to Chiapa as the final judge of the term of office over Mazariegos, and as alcalde mayor (a local colonial governor). He held his post for a year, during which time he tried to rebuild Spain's control of the province, especially the north and east, but could not make much progress.
Establishment of Ciudad Real, Chiapa, 1531-1535
In 1531, Pedro de Alvarado finally took the post of governor of Chiapa. He immediately restored San CristÃÆ'³bal de los Llanos old name to Villa Real. Once again, the encomiendas of Chiapa was transferred to the new owner. Spain launched an expedition against Puyumatlan; it was unsuccessful in terms of conquest, but allowed Spain to seize more slaves in exchange for weapons and horses. The newly acquired supplies would then be used in further expeditions to conquer and calm the still-independent areas, leading to a cycle of slave raids, trade for supplies, followed by further conquest and slave raids. The Mazariegos' family managed to build a base of strength in local colonial institutions and, in 1535, they managed to make San Cristón³bal de los Llanos declare a city, under the new name Ciudad Real. They also succeeded in obtaining the privilege of the Kingdom to stabilize the colony, such as the decree stipulating that the Chiapa governor should govern directly and not through delegated representation. In practice, the rapid turnaround of encomiendas continues, as some Spaniards have legitimate Spanish wives and legitimate children who can inherit. This situation would not stabilize until the 1540s, when the tremendous shortage of Spanish women in the colony was alleviated by the entry of new colonists.
Establishment of Dominicans in Chiapa, 1545-1547
In 1542, the New Law was issued with the aim of protecting indigenous peoples of Spanish colonies from their excessive exploitation by encomenderos . Friar BartolomÃÆ'Â © de las Casas and his followers left Spain in July 1544 to uphold New Law. Las Casas arrived at Ciudad Real with 16 Dominican colleagues on March 12, 1545. The Dominican was the first religious order y
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