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Giganotosaurus ( JY -g? - NOH -t? - SOR -? s ) is a genus of theropod dinosaurs living in what is now Argentina, during the early Cenomanian period of the Late Cretaceous, about 98 years. 97 million years ago. The holotype specimens were found in the Patagonian Candeleros Formation in 1993, and nearly 70% were completed. The animal was named G. carolinii in 1995; the genus name translates as "giant southern lizard" and the specific name honoring the inventor, Rubà ©  © D. Carolini. Tooth bones, teeth and some traces, found before the holotype, are then assigned to these animals. The genus attracted much interest and became part of a scientific debate about the maximum size of theropod dinosaurs.
Part of the Carcharodontosauridae family, Giganotosaurus is one of the most famous members of the group, which includes a very large theropod, as it is closely linked to Mapusaurus and Carcharodontosaurus . Giganotosaurus is thought to have become a homeothermic, with metabolism between mammals and reptiles, which will allow for rapid growth. It may be relatively fast moving, with the maximum running speed calculated at 14 meters per second (50 km/h, 31 mph). It will be able to close his jaw quickly, catch and drop the prey by giving a powerful bite. "Chin" may have helped fight stress when bites are given against its prey. Giganotosaurus is thought to have been the top predator of its ecosystem, and may have eaten teenage sauropod dinosaurs.
Video Giganotosaurus
Description
Giganotosaurus is regarded as one of the largest theropod dinosaurs, but the incompleteness of his remains have made it difficult to estimate its size reliably. Therefore it is not possible to determine with certainty whether it is greater than Tyrannosaurus , for example, which has been considered the largest theropod historically. Different size estimates have been achieved by several researchers, based on various methods, and depending on how the missing pieces of the skeleton have been reconstructed. The length of the forecast for holotype specimen varies between 12 and 13 m (39 and 43 ft), with a skull between 1.53 and 1.80 m (5.0 and 5.9 ft) in length, femur between 1.365 and 1.43 m (4.48 and 4.69Ã, ft) long, and weigh between 4.2 and 13.8 t (4.6 and 15.2 short tons). The combination of stitches (joints) in the brain shell shows the holotype specimen is a mature individual. The second specimen, which consists of the tooth bone (lower jaw portion) of individuals suspected of larger, have been used to extrapolate the length of 13.2 m (43 feet) long, the skull of 1.95 m (6.4 m) and weighing 8 , 2 t (9.0 ton short). Some authors have considered the largest size estimate for both specimens exaggerated. Giganotosaurus has been compared to the great version of the famous genus Allosaurus .
The neck Giganotosaurus is strong, and the bone of the axis (the neck vertebra that articulates with the skull) is strong. The cervical vertebra has a short, flat center ("the body" of the vertebra), with nearly half of the spikes (contact) at the front, and pleurocoels divided by the lamina (plate). The back (dorsal) vertebra has a high nerve curvature and deep pleurokel. The tail vertebrae (caudal) have nerve spines that extend from front to back and have a strong center. The transverse process of the caudal vertebra length from front to back, and chevron in front like a knife. The pectoral corset is proportionately shorter than that of Tyrannosaurus, with the ratio between the scapula (scapula) and the femur being less than 0.5. The scapula bar has a parallel boundary, and a strong tubercle to enter the triceps muscle. Coracoid small and shaped hook.
The pelvic Ilium has a convex upper bound, a low postacetabular blade (behind the acetabulum), and a narrow brevis shelf (a projection in which the tail muscles are attached). The pubic leg is pronounced and shorter in front than in the back. Iskium is straight and extends backward, ending with a lobe shape. The thigh bone is sigmoid, and has a very strong head up, with a deep sulcus (groove). The lower Trochanter of the femoral head is like a wing, and is placed under a larger, shorter major trochanter. The fourth Trochanter is big and projected backwards. The lower leg Tibia is expanded at the top, its articular side (articulated with the femur) wide, and its axis compressed from front to back.
Skull
Although not entirely known, the skull of Giganotosaurus seems to have been low. The upper jaw of the upper jaw has a toothline of 92 cm (36 inches) in length, from top to bottom, and its upper and lower edges almost parallel. Maxilla has a clear (projection) process under the nostrils, and a small elliptical fenestra (opening), as in Allosaurus
The roof of the skull (formed by the frontal and parietal bones) is vast and forms a "shelf", which envelopes a short supratemporal phenestrae at the top of the back of the skull. The jaw is articulated far behind the occipital condyle (where the neck is attached to the skull) compared to the other theropods. The condylum is large and low, and has a pneumatic cavity. Giganotosaurus has no sagittal symbol on the top of the skull, and the jaw muscle does not extend to the skull's roof, unlike most other theropods (due to the shelf above the supratemporal fenestrae). These muscles will otherwise be attached to the bottom surface of the rack. The neck muscles that lift the head will be attached to the protruding supraoksipital bone at the top of the skull, which functions like a nuchal tyrannosaurus peak. Latex endocastes from the brain cavity Giganotosaurus show that the brain is similar to the genus associated Carcharodontosaurus , but larger. The endocast has a length of 29 mm (1 inch), a width of 64 mm (3 inches), and has a volume of 275 ml (9.7 impÃ, flÃ, oz).
The mandibular dentary is enlarged forward (with the symphysis of the mandible), where it is also flattened, and has a downward projection at the end (which has been referred to as the "chin"). The underside of the dentary is concave, the outer side of the convex at the top view, and the grooves running along it, supporting the foramina that fertilizes the tooth. The inner side of the dentary has a row of interdental plates, where each tooth has a foramen. The Meckelian plot ran along the lower boundary. Dentary curvature indicates that the mouth of Giganotosaurus will widen. It is possible that each dentist has twelve alveoli (tooth socket). Most of the alveoli are about 3.5 cm (1.3 inches) long from front to back. Dentary teeth have the same shape and size, except the first one, which is smaller. The teeth are compressed sloping, oval in transverse pieces, and have a serration on the front and back border, which is typical of theropods. Sigmoid-shaped teeth when viewed in front and rear. One tooth has nine to twelve serations per millimeter (0.039 inches). Giganotosaurus has a curved enamel arch, and the largest teeth in the premaxilla (front of the upper jaw) have been pronounced wrinkles (with their highest support near the serration).
Maps Giganotosaurus
History of discovery
In 1993, amateur fossil hunter RubÃÆ'  © n D. Carolini discovered a theropod dinosaur tibia while riding a dune buggy in a barren land near Villa El ChocÃÆ'³n, in the province of Neuquà © à © n Patagonia, Argentina. Specialists from the National University of Comahue were sent to dig up specimens after being told of the findings. The discovery was announced by Argentina palaeontologist Rodolfo Coria and Leonardo Salgado at a meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology in 1994, in which American science writer Don Lessem offered to fund the excavation, after being impressed by bony photographs. The partial skull is spread over an area of ​​about 10 square meters (110 square feet), and the postcranial skeleton is articulated. The specimens are preserved nearly 70% of the skeleton, and include most of the vertebral columns, pectoral girdles and pelvis, femora, and left tibia and fibula. In 1995, this specimen (MUCPv-Ch1) was described earlier in Nature by Coria and Salgado, which made it a holotype of the new genus and species Giganotosaurus carolinii (part of the skeleton it's still wrapped in plaster at the moment). The generic name comes from the ancient Greek word gigas/????? (meaning "giant"), notos/????? (meaning "austral/south", referring to its origin) and -sauros/- ?????? (meaning "lizard"). The specific name honors Carolini, the inventor. The holotype framework is now stored in the Ernesto Bachmann Palaeontological Museum at Villa El ChocÃÆ'³n, which was inaugurated in 1995 at the request of Carolini. The specimen is the main exhibit at the museum, and is placed on a sandy floor of a room devoted to the animal, along with tools used by paleontologists during excavation. A reconstruction of the fitted skeleton is exhibited in adjacent spaces.
One of the most interesting features of theropod dinosaurs is the fact that the group includes the largest terrestrial predator of the Mesozoic Era. This flower begins with the discovery of one of the first known dinosaurs, Megalosaurus , named in 1824 because of its large size. More than half a century later in 1905, Tyrannosaurus was named, and remained the greatest known theropod dinosaur for 90 years, though other great theropods are also known. The discussion on theropods was the greatest revived in the 1990s by new discoveries in Africa and South America. In their original description, Coria and Salgado consider Giganotosaurus at least the largest theropod dinosaur from the southern hemisphere, and perhaps the largest in the world. They acknowledge that comparisons with Tyrannosaurus were difficult because of the skeletal state of the skull bone from Giganotosaurus , but noted that at 1.43 m (4.7 m), the femur of < i> Giganotosaurus is 5 cm (2 inches) longer than the largest known "Sue" specimen
In 1996, American paleontologist Paul Sereno and his colleagues described a new skull from the genus associated Carcharodontosaurus from Morocco, a theropod described in 1927 but previously only known from fragmentary remains (the original fossils were destroyed in World War). II). They estimate that the skull has a length of 1.60 m (5 ft), similar to Giganotosaurus, but it may be more than that of "Tyrannosaurus" Sue, with 1.53 m (5Ã, ft ) long skull. They also showed that carcharodontosaurs appear to have the largest proportional skulls, but that Tyrannosaurus seems to have longer back legs. In a 1995 interview for the Science News article titled "New Beast Usurps T. Rex as King Carnivore", Sereno noted that the newly discovered theropod from South America and Africa was competing with Tyrannosaurus as the largest predator, and will assist in the understanding of the fauna of the late limestone dinosaurs, which are otherwise "North-centric". In the same issue of Science where Carcharodontosaurus is described, Canadian palaeontolog Philip J. Currie warns that it has not been determined which of the two animals is larger, and that the size of an animal is less appeals to paleontologists rather than, for example, adaptation, relationships, and distribution. He also feels remarkable that the two animals are found within a year of each other, and have a close relationship, though found on various continents.
In the 1997 Interview Science News , Coria estimates that Giganotosaurus has reached 13.7 (45Ã, ft) to 14.3 (47Ã, ft) m length and weighs 8 to 10Ã, t (8.8 to 11.0 ton short) based on new material, greater than Carcharodontosaurus . Sereno argued that it would be difficult to determine the range of sizes for species based on some incomplete specimens, and both paleontologists agree that another aspect of this dinosaur is more important than completing a "size contest". In 1998, Jorge O. Calvo and Coria referred to a partially left tooth that contained several teeth (MUCPv-95) to Giganotosaurus . It was collected by Calvo near Los Candeleros in 1988 (discovered in 1987), which described it briefly in 1989, while noting it may belong to a new theropod taxon. Calvo and Coria found the dentures identical to the holotype, though 8% larger at 62 cm (24 inches). Although the back is incomplete, they propose that the skull of the holotype specimen would be 1.80 m (6 feet) long, and estimate the skull of the larger specimen to be 1.95 m (6.4 m) long, the longest skull of any theropod.
In 1999, Calvo referred to incomplete teeth, (MUCPv-52), to Giganotosaurus ; The specimen was found near Lake Ezequiel Ramos Mexia in 1987 by A. Delgado, and is therefore the first known genus fossil. Calvo further suggested that some theropod tracks and isolated tracks (which he created the basis of ichnotaxon Abelichnus astigarrae in 1991) belong to Giganotosaurus , based on their large size. The biggest track is 50 cm (20 inches) long with a speed of 130 cm (51 inches), and the smallest is 36 cm (14 inches) at 100 cm (39 inches). The tracks are tridactyl and have large and rough digits, with prominent claw marks. The digit impressions occupy most of the track length, and one track has a thin heel. Although traces are found at higher stratigraphic levels than the main fossils of Giganotosaurus, they originate from the same layers with single teeth and some sauropod dinosaurs also known from the same strata as
In 2001, physician-scientist Frank Seebacher proposed a new polynomial method of calculating body-mass estimates for dinosaurs (using body length, depth, and width), and found Giganotosaurus to weigh 6.6 (7.3 (based on an estimated length of 12.5 m (41 ft).In their 2002 description of the Giganotosaurus brainstem, Coria and Currie gave an approximate length of 1.60 m (5Ã, ft) for the skull holotype, and calculated the weight of 4.2 t (4.6 short tons) by extrapolating from the 520 mm (20 in) circumference of the femoral axle.This resulted in intelligence encephalization (1.9 relative brain size) In 2004, Gerardo V Mazzetta and colleagues point out that although the thigh bone of the Giganotosaurus holotype is greater than "Sue", the tibia is 8 cm (3 inches) shorter at 1.12 m (4Ã, ft). the same holotype as Tyrannosaurus in size 8Ã t (8.8 short tons) (a little smaller than a "Sue"), but that a larger dentary may have represented animals from 10 t (11 short tons), if geometrically similar to the holotype specimen. Using a multivariate regression equation, this authors also suggested alternatives of weight 6.5 t (7.2 tonnes short) for holotype and 8.2 t (9.0 short tons) for larger specimens, and the latter being the largest terrestrial carnivore that is known.
In 2005, Christiano Dal Sasso and colleagues described a new skull material (snout) of Spinosaurus (the original fossil that was also destroyed during World War II), and concluded the dinosaur would be 16 to 18 years old. m (52 ​​â € <â €
In 2012, Matthew T. Carrano and colleagues note that although Giganotosaurus has received much attention because of its enormous size, and apart from a relatively complete holotype, it has not been described in detail, separately. of the brain shell. They show that many contacts between the skull bones are not preserved, which causes the total length of the skull to be ambiguous. They found that the skulls of Giganotosaurus and Carcharodontosaurus were exactly the same as that of Tyrannosaurus . They also measured the thigh bone of the Giganotosaurus holotype to 1,365 m (4Ã, ft) long, in contrast to the original measurements, and proposed that the body mass would be smaller overall. In 2013, the American paleontologist, Scott Hartman, publish estimates of mass Integral Dual Graphics (based on the reconstruction of the framework), where he finds Tyrannosaurus ( "Sue") has been greater than Giganotosaurus me as a whole. He estimates the Giganotosaurus holotype <6> weighs 6.8 t (7.5 ton short), and larger specimens are 8.2 t (9.0 ton short). Tyrannosaurus was estimated to have weighed 8.4 t (9.3 tonnes short), and Hartman noted that it had a wider body, although both looked similar in a side view. He also pointed out that Giganotosaurus dentists should be 8% larger than holotype specimens larger 6.5%, or can only have animals the same size as stronger dentists.. He acknowledged that with only one well-known specimen of Giganotosaurus, it is possible that larger individuals would be discovered, since it took nearly a century to find "Sue" after Tyrannosaurus was found. In 2014, Nizar Ibrahim and colleagues estimated the length of Spinosaurus has more than 15 m (49 ft), by extrapolating from the new specimens were upgraded to fit the muzzle described by Dal Sasso and colleagues. This will make Spinosaurus the largest carnivorous dinosaur ever.
Classification
Coria and Salgado initially found Giganotosaurus to group more closely the Tetanurae theropod clade than the more basal (or "primitive") theropods such as ceratosaurs, due to the synapomorphic features in the legs, skulls and pelvis. Another feature indicates that it is beyond the further (or "advanced") Coelurosauria clade. In 1996, Sereno and his colleagues found Giganotosaurus, Carcharodontosaurus and Acrocanthosaurus to be closely associated in Allosauroidea superfamily, and grouped them in the Carcharodontosauridae family. The common features of this genera include the lacrimal and postorbital bones that form a broad "rack" above the orbit, and the front end of the squares of the lower jaw.
As more and more carcharodontosaurids are found, their associations become more apparent. This group is defined as all allosauroids closer to Carcharodontosaurus than either Allosaurus or Sinraptor by Thomas R. Holtz and colleagues in 2004. In 2006, Coria and Currie united Giganotosaurus and Mapusaurus in the carcharodontosaurid subgroup Giganotosaurinae based on the features of the femur, such as the weak fourth trochanter, and the shallow and wide grooves on the lower end. In 2008, Sereno and Stephen L. Brusatte united the Giganotosaurus, Mapusaurus and Tyrannotitan in the Giganotosaurini tribe. Giganotosaurus is one of the most complete and informative members of Carcharodontosauridae.
The following cladogram shows the placement of Giganotosaurus in Carcharodontosauridae according to SebastiÃÆ'¡n ApesteguÃÆ'Â et al., 2016:
Coria and Salgado suggest that the evolution of convergent gigantism in theropods can be attributed to common conditions in their environment or ecosystem. Sereno and colleagues found that the presence of carcharodontosaurids in Africa ( Carcharodontosaurus ), North America ( Acrocanthosaurus ), and South America ( Giganotosaurus ), showed the group has a cross-continental distribution in the Early Cretaceous period. The dispersal route between the northern and southern continents appears to have been interrupted by sea barriers in the Late Cretaceous, which led to more distinct provincial fauna, preventing exchanges. Previously, it was estimated that the Cretaceous world was biogeographically separated, with the northern continent dominated by tyrannosaurids, South America by abelisaurid, and Africa by carcharodontosaurids. The subfamily of Carcharodontosaurinae, where Giganotosaurus belongs, appears to have been restricted to the southern continent of Gondwana (formed by South America and Africa), where they may be top (top) predators. The Giganotosaurini tribe of South America may have been separated from their African relatives through vicariance, when Gondwana broke up during the Aptian-Albian era from the Early Cretaceous.
Palaeobiology
In 1999, Reese E. Barrick and William J. Showers found that bones of Giganotosaurus and Tyrannosaurus had a very similar pattern of oxygen isotopes, with the same heat distribution inside body. This thermoregulation pattern shows that this dinosaur had a metabolism between mammals and reptiles, and therefore homeothermic (with stable core body temperature, a "hot-blooded" type). The metabolism of 8 t (8.8 tonnes short) Giganotosaurus will be comparable to the carnivorous mammals 1Ã, t (1.1 ton short), and will support rapid growth.
In 2001, R. Ernesto Blanco and Mazzetta evaluated the cursorial ability of Giganotosaurus . They rejected the hypothesis by James Orville Farlow that the risk of injury involved in large animals such as falls while running, would limit the speed of the large theropods. Instead they state that the imbalance caused by speed increases will be a limiting factor. Calculating the time it takes for the legs to get the balance after the opposite foot retraction, they find the upper kinematic limit from running speed to 14 meters per second (50 km/h; 31 mph). They also found a comparison between the ability to run Giganotosaurus and ostrich-like birds based on bone strength-their legs were of limited value, because theropods, unlike birds, had a heavy tail to offset their weight..
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In 2002, Coria and Currie found that various features of the back of the skull (such as the slope of the front of the nape and the low and wide occipital condyles) indicated that Giganotosaurus would have good abilities. moving the skull sideways in relation to the front neck vertebra. These features may also be associated with increased jaw muscle mass and length; the articulation of the jaw Giganotosaurus and other carcharodontosaurids is moved backwards to increase the jaw muscle length, allowing faster jaw closure, while tyrannosaurs increase the muscle mass of the lower jaw, to increase jaw muscle strength. bite them.
In 2005 Therrien and colleagues estimated the relative theropod bite strength (estimates in absolute values ​​such as Newton are not possible) and found that Giganotosaurus and associated taxa had an adaptation to capture and drop prey by giving a strong bite, whereas tyrannosaurus had adaptation to fight torsional stress and bone destruction. The strength of the bite Giganotosaurus is weaker than Tyrannosaurus , and the power drops backward along the line of the tooth. The lower jaw is adapted for slicing a bite, and may capture and manipulate the prey with the front of the jaw. These authors suggest that Giganotosaurus and other allosaurs may have common predators given a wider spectrum of smaller prey than themselves, such as teenage sauropods. The mandibular ventral (or "chin") process may be an adaptation to resist tensile stress when a strong bite is delivered with the front of the jaw against its prey.
The first known closely-known fossil Mapusaurus was found in bonebed consisting of several individuals at different growth stages. In their 2006 description of the genus, Coria and Currie suggest that although this could be due to long-term accumulation or accidental carcasses, the presence of different growth stages of the same taxon suggests that aggregation is not accidental. In a 2006 National Geographic article, Coria states that bonebeds may be the result of major catastrophic events, and that the presence of moderately sized individuals, with very few parents or young, is normal for animals. which form the package. Therefore, Coria says, large theropods may have hunted in groups, which would be advantageous when hunting giant sauropods.
Palaeoecology
Giganotosaurus was found in the Candeleros Formation, which was stored during the early Cenomanian Age of the Late Cretaceous period, about 98 to 97 million years ago, although Holtz gave an early lower limit for his age of 99.6 million years. This formation is the lowest unit in the NeuquÃÆ' Group nà © n, where it is part of the Réo Limay Subgroup. This formation consists of rough and medium sandstones stored in fluvial environments (associated with rivers and streams), and in aeolian conditions (influenced by wind). Paleosols (buried ground), siltstones, and claystones are present, some of which represent swamp conditions.
Giganotosaurus is probably the top predator in its ecosystem. It shares its surroundings with herbivorous dinosaurs such as the titanosaurian sauropod Andesaurus , and the sulho- saurus sodophode Limaysaurus and Nopcsaspondylus . Other theropods include abelisaurid ekrixinatosaurus , dromaeosaurid buitreraptor , and alvarezsaurid alnashetri . Other reptiles include crocodyliform Araripesuchus , sphenodontians, snakes, and turtles Prochelidella . Other vertebrates include cladotheria mammals, pipoid frogs, and ceratodontiform fish. Footprints indicate the presence of large ornithopods and pterosaurs as well.
References
External links
- Media related to Giganotosaurus on Wikimedia Commons
- Canadian Museum of Nature: "Who is the last dino? Giganotosaurus or T.xx ?" - video presented by Jordan Mallon
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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